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South African Archaeological Bulletin, 67 , 59— Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. Download references. We are extremely grateful to staff at the KwaZulu-Natal Museum, especially Carolyn Thorp and Mudzunga Munzhedzi for facilitating access to the collections in their care. Peter Taylor, former curator at the Durban Natural Science Museum, provided rodent specimens for strontium isotope analysis. Neil Rusch compiled the composite photographic image in Fig. Tim Maggs guided this research, made many suggestions, answered innumerable questions and read and commented on a draft manuscript.
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Skip to main content. Search SpringerLink Search. Download PDF. Introduction In this paper, we report on the earliest and most southerly evidence for ivory trade in precolonial Africa. Full size image. Ndondondwane Excavations at Ndondondwane were initiated by Maggs b in , followed by a second phase in — Loubser and third phase beginning in Greenfield and Van Schalkwyk Identifying Ivories Ivory is a specialised tooth that grows outwardly, protruding from the mouth of the animal, and is composed primarily of dentine.
Biomolecular Methods for Identifying Ivories ZooMS is a method of taxonomic identification based upon peptide mass fingerprinting the acronym ZooMS and method defined by van Doorn ; when applied to ivory and other skeletal hard tissues, it uses the structural protein collagen. Isotopes as Tracers of Diet and Environment Carbon Isotopes In tropical and subtropical Africa, where rain falls predominantly in the summer, most grasses utilise the C 4 photosynthetic pathway, while shrubs, trees and other dicotyledonous plants utilise the C 3 pathway.
Laboratory Methods Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis Elephant, hippopotamus and warthog ivory grows continuously and incrementally throughout the lifetime of the animal. Table 1 ZooMS and isotope data for all samples analysed in this study Full size table. ZooMS All of the 26 collagen samples analysed using ZooMS could be successfully identified to species, and all proved to be elephant ivory.
Discussion In Fig. Conclusions Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis, in combination with species identification using ZooMS, shows that all of the ivory artefacts and fragments of worked ivory that we studied are elephant, rather than hippopotamus or warthog ivory. References Ambrose, S. Article Google Scholar Ambrose, S.
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Google Scholar Hunter, M. Google Scholar Insoll, T. Article Google Scholar Ishibashi, H. Google Scholar Johnston, S. During the s African elephant populations decreased by almost 50 percent. Since monitoring began approximately 30 years ago, has been the worst year on record, with the largest amount of illegal ivory confiscated worldwide. It has been estimated that 35, elephants are illegally killed each year for their ivory. Asian elephants are still threatened by poaching but not all Asian elephants have tusks.
Regulations differ depending on the source of the ivory, whether from African or Asian elephants. A summary of common questions related to African elephant ivory regulations is presented below. These laws are complex and subject to change. For the most up-to-date information, contact the U.
Trained rangers in these parks are the first line of defense against poachers. Additionally, many wildlife protection organizations such as the FWS African Elephant Conservation Fund , World Wildlife Fund , and Wildlife Conservation Society , partner with local agencies and communities in Africa to support elephant conservation initiatives.
These activities include monitoring elephant populations, protecting habitats, implementing anti-poaching tactics, tracking illegal trade, and increasing education. Elephant populations in some protected areas, such as in Kenya and Tanzania have stabilized or increased due to these conservation methods.
The greatest numbers of African elephants today are found in northern Botswana, followed by Tanzania. Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian is committed to raising awareness of the illegal poaching of elephants and the illicit trade of ivory. Ivory in its collections is from historical collections, and is not contributing to the illegal ivory trade or the extinction of elephants. In addition, the Smithsonian supports research into elephant conservation.
Gift of Walt Disney World Co. The elephant does not listen to those who talk behind him. A range of natural and synthetic materials have been used to replicate ivory, especially in recent centuries as ivory has become rarer and more expensive. Teeth, bones, and antlers from other animals, vegetable ivory from palm nuts, and plastics have all been used as substitutes.
To date, the distinctive features of ivory have not been successfully replicated. Nevertheless, substituted materials can look quite similar and distinguishing between them and ivory can be difficult, especially when the object is small and elaborately carved or painted. Visual examination with magnification and a trained eye can aid in identifying different types of ivory and ivory substitutes. For more definitive identification, certain analytical tools may be used however, these tests are destructive, requiring a small sample be removed from the object.
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy FTIR can distinguish between ivory and some substitutes, although bone may be too similar in composition to differentiate.
DNA analysis can more definitively identify the animal source, including identification within species and more specific geographic origin such as forest and savannah elephants. African and Asian elephant ivory can only be distinguished with DNA analysis. Stable isotope analysis is another forensic method applied to ivory that provides information about the habitat in which the elephant lived.
Peptide mass fingerprinting is an emerging technique that identifies proteins like ivory and bone and requires a much smaller sample than DNA analysis. Radiocarbon dating or carbon dating can be used to determine the age of ivory. This method, however, only identifies when the ivory formed; the date of harvest may be estimated only if the sample is from the base or root area of the tusk. Elephants can live up to 60 years, and their tusks grow throughout their lives with the tip remaining the oldest part.
Therefore, the location of the sample on the tusk may greatly affect the dating results. Radiocarbon dating in combination with DNA analysis has been used to identify the age and geographic source of ivory that is illegally confiscated in order to track the ivory trade and improve efforts to stop it.
He who follows the elephant is not touched by the dew. Ivory is porous and vulnerable to changes in the environment; it is particularly reactive to humidity and temperature fluctuations. In low relative humidity RH ivory can lose moisture, shrink, crack, and delaminate or separates into layers , while at a high RH ivory is susceptible to swelling and warping. Similar dimensional changes occur when ivory is exposed to temperature fluctuations, with rapid and extreme changes causing the most damage.
Like wood, ivory is prone to cracking along its natural grain, which is created during ivory formation and growth on the elephant. Exposure to light, however, can cause bleaching. Because ivory is so porous, it is susceptible to staining, which may be caused by contact with oils from skin, dust, dirt, previously applied coatings such as shellac that has yellowed , corroding metals such as copper with green corrosion , and other colored materials.
Therefore, it is best to wear gloves or thoroughly wash hands before handling ivory. Water and other cleaning solutions can damage ivory, so wet cleaning is not advised. Protection from light, dust, and dirt is also advised.
Materials used to store the ivory should be chemically stable; for example, avoid rubber-based materials which can yellow and stain ivory. Instead, polyethylene or polypropylene foam and sheeting can be used to line shelves and support objects in storage. Another option is to first wrap ivory with acid-free tissue or washed muslin fabric and then store it in sealed plastic bags made of polyethylene such as Ziplock-style bags.
If the ivory needs cleaning or repair, a professional art conservator should be consulted. Art conservators are highly trained in the care, preservation, and appropriate restoration of art and artifacts. Baker, Barry W. The video looks at attempts to stem the killing—attempts that largely have proven unsuccessful, evidenced by the fact that more than 25, elephants were killed in Africa in alone.
Answers will vary. Awareness of the history of the illegal ivory trade will increase understanding of the role market demands play in the decline of the elephant population. Knowing the issues surrounding the decline of the elephant population will help people critically examine needs for conservation of this natural resource. The lifting of the ban for these special sales had the effect of sanctioning illegal trade in tusks and increasing poaching once again.
Why has bringing the world's attention to the near-extinction of the elephant population in Africa been unsuccessful in stopping the killing of elephants? Even with an ivory ban in place and global public opinion strongly favoring enforcement of the ban, the demand for ivory continues, perhaps stronger than ever. The money made through the illegal ivory trade is a key factor in losing the fight to stop poaching and smuggling poached ivory.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora international agreement whose aim is "to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.
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